|
There
are approximately 114 members of the starling
family. The best known starling is in the genus
"sturnus." Included in this genus of
16 species is the Red-billed Starling, White-cheeked
Starling, Spotless Starling and Common Starlings,
(Sturnus Vulgaris). What is not well known is
that the subspecies, Sturnus Vulgaris includes
approximately 12 subspecies, but by far the best
known is "s.v. Sturnus Vulgaris," and
this is the one that is believed to have been
imported to the United States. Most of the subspecies
are migratory, but a few are not.
European
Starlings walk rather than hop as many of the
other bird species do, such as Mynahs. They have
strong legs and toes with sharp claws. The bill
is pointed and perfectly adapted for probing into
soil, or picking food from the surface of the
ground, catching insects, and poking holes in
fruit. One of the unique adaptions of the Starling
is prying or open-bill probing from the development
of advanced protractor muscles. It can insert
the closed bill into the grass and then open the
bill; the eyes move forward (binocular vision)
to give better forward vision. Their wings are
adapted for speed rather than maneuverability.
The
winter color is a glossy iridescent black with
purple and greens, the tips of the birds feathers
have white stars. By spring the white feather
tips have worn away, so that by the time of breeding
season they are no longer noticeable. They only
molt once a year. The Starling in winter has a
dark brown beak that changes into yellow as breeding
season approaches. The timing of this change seems
to be geographic as some start changing as early
as Nov. while others don't do so until Jan. or
Feb. Male starlings in breeding season have a
blue cast to the beak and females have pink. To
see a picture of male and female starlings click here
The temperatures
in which a starling can maintain their body temperature without expending
any energy is between 10 and 100 degrees F. (15 to 40 degrees C.) Temperatures
outside of this range requires the bird to expend energy to produce heat
to maintain the body temperature. Some believed that the habit of flocking,
in winter, was to regulate the temperature and humidity. However, studies
have shown that both the temperature and humidity were similar inside
and outside the roost. It has been found that Starlings can be prevented
from roosting in their preferred sites by thinning the tree canopy. The
preferred winter roosting site is in conifers/evergreens, especially spruce.
Deciduous trees are preferred in the summer. Roosting in urban areas could
be explained by the fact that increasing urbanization has led to the destruction
of many rural sites that might have been used.
Starlings
are keen bathers, and love to spread their wings and go into what looks
like a trance to sun bathe. They also engage in a practice called "anting,"
in which they dab their bodies with caught ants, or with other acidic
things such as vodka or vinegar. This is believed to release formic acid
which repels ectoparasites.
The oldest
Starling ever recorded is a bird that was banded in Germany in 1943; it
was recovered in 1955, 21 years and 4 months after being banded. In captivity
the oldest recorded bird, Kuro lived to be 19 years
old.
Starlings are essentially ground feeders, preferring
short grass, such as mowed lawns, and livestock
areas. They are widely held as beneficial to agriculture
in many parts of the world and it is this feature
that has led to some of them being introduced
into new areas. Starling
(NZBirds Gallery) The starling is native to
Europe, where it remains one of that continent's
most common birds.
  |
In
1890 about 60 starlings were imported to
the United States by a group who wanted
to introduce all the birds mentioned by
William Shakespeare in his plays.Due to
the starling’s ability to mimic human
speech Shakespeare chose to include the
starling in Henry IV, “The king forbade
my tongue to speak of Mortimer. But I will
find him when he is asleep, and in his ear
I’ll holler ‘Mortimer!’ Nay
I’ll have a starling shall be taught
to speak nothing but Mortimer, and give
it to him to keep his anger still in motion.”
This is the only instance where Shakespeare
mentions starlings. The starlings were released
in New York City's Central Park. Another
40 starlings were released a year later.
The birds multiplied rapidly and spread
into surrounding areas. However, in recent
years there has been a dramatic decline
in starling populations, both in Europe
and the US; the cause has not yet been found.
The
Decline of Starlings
Picture
courtesy of Don Wesley, from his paintings
depicting Starlings as the proud and triumphant explorers and conquerers
that they are.
|
Rachel L.
Carson, author of "Silent Spring" in the article "How about
Citizenship Papers for the Starling?" says:
"In spite of his remarkable success as a pioneer, the starling probably
has fewer friends than almost any other creatue that wears feathers. That
fact, however, seems to be of very little importance to this cheerful
bird with glossy plumage and stumpy tail. Without seeming to care whether
the benefiting farmer thanks him or reviles him, he hurries with jerky
steps about the farms and gardens in the summer time, carring more than
100 loads of destructive insects per day to his screaming offspring, cramming
his own stomach full of such foods as Japanese beetles, caterpillars,
and cutworms. With complete indifference to angry protests, he finds roosting
places in warm cities in the winter, going out each morning, a faithful
commuter in reverse, to earn his bread in the surrounding countryside.
On one point ornithologists are pretty well agreed--the starling is here
to stay. Shall we then continue to regard him as an alien or shall we
conclude that his successful pioneering and his service in insect destruction
entitle him to American citizenship?
As to economic worth, a pretty complete auditing
of the starling's books has already been performed
by the Department of Agriculture." To read about
the natural diet of the wild starling click here.
In
breeding season starlings require large quantities
of invertebrates, because of their high protein
needs. When feeding young, their diet is almost
entirely invertebrates obtained from the surface
of soil of grass fields. In winter, male starlings
tend to eat a more vegetable and grain diet, while
females need to devote more time to feeding on
invertebrates. When starlings switch to grain
or vegetable food, the intestines lengthen, and
the wall of the gizzard increases in thickness
to better absorb/utilize the nutrients in the
harder to digest food. Starlings are usually healthy,
robust birds.
Bill-wiping (the habit of wiping the bill back
and forth on a branch or other such object) seems
to indicate to other birds that the bird has finished
eating and is no longer a competitor for food.
In a study it was found that it also seems to
be a means of keeping the beak trimmed to the
right length. The study found that starlings given
only smooth surfaces, such as perches wrapped
in linen, engaged in bill-wiping more often than
the birds given rough surfaces to wipe their beaks
on. The birds with the smooth surfaces developed
overgrown beaks, which the birds with the rough
surfaces did not. (Cuthill, Witter, Luka Clarke,
1992)
Breeding
The
male finds a nest site and then uses his song
to attract a mate. It is also the male who builds
the nest and includes things such as fresh flowers,
green leaves and herbs. The male also engages
in wing-waving in which he half extends his wings
and rotates them while singing. This seems to
be a way of attracting a mate. In breeding season
the female is dominate, perhaps because there
are two males for every female starling.
Nesting
Behavior
The
eggs are usually a solid pale color, without spotting,
however there may be an occasional spotted egg.
This is believed to help the parents see the eggs
and is typical of cavity nesting birds, however
starlings in most of the other genera lay blue,
spotted eggs. Starlings also make bulky nests
within their cavities. Starlings lay eggs at approximately
24 hour intervals, but the first three are laid
at slightly less than that. They are incubated
on average of 12 days after the laying of the
last egg. The female does most of the incubation,
but the male will help out. Four eggs are the
normal clutch size. The eggs all hatch, usually
within 24 hours of each other. Sometimes one egg
will hatch a day later than the rest. This last
chick rarely survives, as the older siblings have
already started growing and are able to out-compete
it for food. Go to baby starlings to see a series
of pictures from the egg to fledging.
"John
Aubrey (quoted by Atkinson 1956) thought that some of the holes left in
the mortice-and-tenon joints between upright stones and lintels of Stonehenge
might have been left deliberately for Starlings to nest in, these birds
being held sacred by the Druids who are often considered to have had connections
with this monument." However, Atkinson casts some doubt on this connection
and points out that Stonehenge was built over 1000 years before Druidism
became a cult: perhaps it was the nesting of Starlings in religious structures
like this that led to their being regarded as "sacred!" (Christopher
Feare, 1984)
Beneficial?
Besides
their voracious consumption of harmful insects,
they are also a food source for many of our native
birds and animals. Because they are very abundant
during most of the year, the European Starling
is an important prey species as food for raptors,
such as Peregrine Falcons, Cooper's and Sharp-Shinned
hawks. Biologist Bud Anderson, with the Falcon
Research Group is studying the peregrine falcons'
comeback in Washington state since the phase out
of the pesticide DDT. He says: "We're looking
at 30 pairs of peregrines and in virtually all
those nests we see starlings as one of the main
prey items," and further stated "Starlings are
helping bring back peregrines."
The reports of Starlings taking over the nests
of other birds has been the reason some people
dislike them. Recent research has shown that starlings
have had little impact on native cavity-nesters.
Please read Starlings
and Cavity-Nesters. Many native birds
have been forced to use man-made nest boxes because
their natural habitat has been destroyed. With
the destruction of forest lands the birds who
would normally live and breed there are forced
out and into the habitat of the starling, even
so, the sapsucker seems to be the only bird that
may be impacted by starlings. According to Dr.W.D.Koenig,
[1] in his research paper, "European Starlings
and their Effect on Native Cavity-Nesting Birds"
he found that "Thus, despite their aggressiveness
and high abundance,and contrary to the fears of
many North American ornithologists, European Starlings
have yet to unambiguously and significantly threaten
any species of North American cavity-nesting bird,
with the possible exception of sapsuckers".
Please click
title to visit the following website: The
Case Of The Missing Songbirds
Artificial nest boxes can be made with entrance
holes that prevent the starling from entering.
People who are trying to have nesting birds on
their property should make an effort to insure
that the nest box holes are the right size. Starlings
can be excluded from nest boxes by using an entrance
hole less than 4.1 cm as advised by Giusti and
Gorenzel (1993) and Lynes (2000). The following
website, Audubon Workshop, has devices and information
that will prevent starlings from entering nest
boxes. Click here:
Audubon Workshop
Song
Birds
do not have a larynx, but sing/talk with an organ
called the syrinx. The syrinx is located at the
bottom of the trachea (the tube just above the
lungs). It is made up of chambers whose "walls"
(membranes) vibrate when air passes them. Birds
use special muscles to change the shapes of the
membranes, which changes the sounds of their songs.
It is interesting to note that birds with some
of the most beautiful songs -- such as Mockingbirds,
and superb mimics, such as European Starlings--
have more muscles to control the membranes of
the syrinx. Some birds can vibrate the left and
right sides of the syrinx independently, so their
songs are harmonious duets produced by a single
bird! This is a great link to hear pet starlings
talking at StarlingCentral.net: Starlings
can Talk?
Male
Starlings that have developed the most involved
songs are considered to be the most desirable
to hens, and females seem to be able to recognize
the song of their mates. Starlings can also mimic
the sounds of their surroundings such as other
birds, animals, and mechanical sounds, as well
as the human voice. This mimicked call is incorporated
into the song of the male. Of interest is a study
which found that starlings can memorize a sound
at 6 months of age, never hear it again, but reproduce
it up to 18 months later. This study also found
that starlings add new sounds for up to 13 months.
(Chaiken, Bohner, Marler, 1994) We have birds
on the Starling
Talk message board who are still learning
new sounds at 10 years of age.
RESOURCES:
Christopher Feare. The Starling. Oxford
Press, 1984.
Chris Feare and Adrain Craig. Starlings and
Mynas. Princeton University Press, 1999.
Marthaleah Chaiken, Jorg Bohner, and Peter Marler.
"Repertoire Turnover and the Timing of Song
Acquisition in European Starlings." Animal
Behavior, vol 128 (1-2) 1994, pp26-39.
Rachel L. Carson. "How About Citizenship Papers
For The Starling?"Nature Magazine, Vol.32,
1939, pp317-319.
Innes Cuthill, Mark Witter, and Luka Clarke. "The
function of Bill-Wiping." Animal Behavior,
Vol 43 ,1992 pp103-115.
Koenig
W.D.[1] "European Starlings and Their Effect
on Native Cavity-Nesting Birds" "Conservation
Biology", August 2003, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 1134-1140
|
